Plastic

Plastic can be natural or synthetic. All plastics are polymers, giving them the ability to be moulded into shapes. In 1.5 million years BC, the Olmecs in Mexico played with rubber balls that originated from rubber trees and were known for their natural elasticity. Fast forward to the 18th century, French explorer Charles-Marie de La Condamine encountered a rubber tree in the Amazon Basin, leading to the first patents for “vulcanised” rubber in the US and UK during the 1840s. In 1862, Alexander Parks, a British inventor displayed “Parkesine”, an early form of plastic that was made out of cellulose, at an international exhibition in London. In 1870, the American Hyatt brothers created celluloid by adding camphor to Parkesine to improve plastic’s malleability. By the early 20th century, Leo Baekeland, also known as “The Father of the Plastics Industry”, developed Bakelite which became the first synthetic plastic to be derived from fossil fuels, and marked the beginning of modern plastic production and plastic pollution. Plastic production boomed as the 20th century progressed, and so plastic made its way into every aspect of daily life—from the transportation industry to consumer products. Today, about 4-8% of annual global oil consumption is associated with plastic. In 2019, 353 million tons of plastic waste was produced and that number is expected to increase three times by 2060.

Only a small fraction of total plastic waste gets recycled. 49.84% of plastic waste is sent to landfill, taking between 500 to 1,000 years to degrade while producing landfill gas and releasing microplastics that create environmental and health hazards. 22.45% of plastic waste is mismanaged and significantly harms wildlife by entanglement, ingestion or release of microplastics. Microplastics are less than 5mm in diameter, while nanoplastics are less than one micrometre in diameter—both finding their way into the body through ingestion or inhalation. New research shows that the amount of microplastics in the human brain is increasing over time, with concentrations rising 50% between 2016 and 2024 as plastic production doubles every 10-15 years. A study published in March 2024 found that patients with higher concentrations of microplastics in their arteries were at a higher risk of heart attacks, stroke and death. The potential health consequences remain largely unknown, but current findings warrant further investigation.

While the majority of plastic waste gets mismanaged and discarded in landfills,19.05% of plastic is incinerated. Yet the harmful byproducts of incineration negates any generated energy. Waste incineration has the largest climate impact compared to the disposal of plastic in landfills or recycling. This is also a climate justice issue since incineration facilities are often built near marginalized, low-income communities of color. Only 9.29% of plastic is recycled and its quality degrades, so most plastic can only get recycled once or twice. For plastic to get recycled, it needs to be completely free from contamination which means that a whopping 91% of plastic waste ends up in landfills and beyond, as nature cannot be contained in human-constructed delineations. Since it is cheaper to make a new plastic product, there is less of a financial incentive for companies to recycle. Although recycling was created to reduce plastic waste, addressing plastic pollution must start at the source.

Plastic pollution and the climate crisis are often studied separately, so the combined impacts are not considered together despite being intertwined in many ways. For example, fossil fuel extraction—the main driver of climate change—is also the source of plastic production, while plastic waste further contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Climate also influences the distribution of plastic pollution, such as tropical storms scattering mis-managed plastic waste across terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments. An example of this are the large garbage patches made up of floating microplastic debris located in numerous parts of the Pacific ocean along where rotating currents and winds converge. Furthermore, sea level rise due to rising average global temperatures may release plastics trapped in coastal sediments. These impacts collectively destabilize vulnerable ecosystems—highlighting the ways in which environmental stressors build upon each other. The combined consequences of plastic pollution and the climate crisis also demonstrates that these issues can be tackled efficiently by addressing the root cause (fossil fuels) and conducting more research to further understand the links between the two.

Plastic does not harm all beings equally. Indigenous peoples are disproportionately impacted by the whole life cycle of plastic pollution, from the extraction of fossil fuel on indigenous lands to the exposure to toxic emissions from processing, and circulation of microplastics in the natural environment. Many Western countries also export their contaminated waste to poorer countries, forcing them to bear the brunt of plastic pollution that they are not responsible for. Research on the biological effects of microplastics and nanoplastics is still early, yet alarming, as microplastics are high in people with inflammatory bowel disease and associated with the development of cardiovascular disease. There are more than 10,000 chemicals present in plastics, including carcinogens and endocrine disruptors. The environmental health is negatively impacted as microplastics have been found to reduce plankton’s ability to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. As more plastic is produced and consumed globally, it raises questions on how plastic accumulates in tissues and its impact over the lifespan of a person.

As the detrimental impacts of single use plastics increasingly drive social, economic and environmental consequences, sustainable alternatives have been identified. Studies show that a majority of ocean plastic and shoreline debris consists of single yield packaging, short-term use consumer products like food and beverage containers, and textile fibres. As a result, many countries have begun restricting the use of thin plastic bags to incentivise the adoption of reusable bags made from natural materials. Resolution 5/14 was adopted by the United Nations Environment Assembly in March 2022 to call upon member states to combat plastic pollution via measures such as with a circular economy approach. There are also policy interventions to reduce plastic waste such as Precautionary Approach and the Polluter Pays Principle. Climate-friendly alternatives to plastic include natural fibres, from plants and animals, biomass based compostables, synthetic biopolymers, and reusable non-plastic materials.

The future of plastic is uncertain. While scientists, policymakers, and climate activists fight for a plastic-free world, it is important to recognize how the plastic market avoids accountability for its pollution by using scapegoating tactics. Regulators focus on single-use plastics and recycling instead of accusing corporations and plastic producers for pollution. This dynamic of blame contributes to consumer responsibility for plastic waste, despite lacking the resources and the means to control plastic production, reinforcing power imbalances. To combat plastic waste, many believe that global and legally binding targets must be enforced to phase down and eventually phase out plastic production with clear timelines. Holistic strategies such as shifting towards a more circular economy and using biodegradable and compostable plastic are also increasingly viewed as efficient waste-management alternatives. The catchphrase: “Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle” strategically places the action of recycling last since it is the least impactful in addressing plastic pollution. What remains clear is that people are hungry for solutions since plastic has long-lasting harmful effects on the body, vulnerable communities, and in the more-than-human world.